Table 1 Summary of randomized controlled trials and observational studies investigating pneumococcal conjugate vaccine efficacy or effectiveness against coronaviruses

Randomized controlled trials

 Nunes 2021 [6]

PCV9

HIV-uninfected children aged < 2y in South Africa

HCoV-associated pneumonia (any)

64.0 (22.9–83.2), P = 0.006

HCoV-associated pneumonia (single viral infection)

50.0 (-66.0–84.9), P = 0.25

HCoV-OC43-associated pneumonia

90.9 (29.5–98.8), P = 0.004

HCoV-HKU1-associated pneumonia

87.5 (0.1–98.4), P = 0.020

HCoV-NL63-associated pneumonia

-33.3 (-248.1–53.7), P = 0.59

 Huijts 2018 [7]

PCV13

Adults ≥ 65y in The Netherlands

HCoV-associated confirmed CAP

23.6 (99.3%CI -54.3–62.2), P = 0.302

HCoV-associated suspected pneumonia

30.6 (99.3%CI -14.0–57.8), P = 0.047

Observational studies

 Lewnard 2022 [4]

PCV13

Adults ≥ 18y in the US

Any virus detected^c

HCoV-associated LRTI or pneumonia^d

27.4 (4.5–44.7)

HCoV-associated LRTI (non-pneumonia)

51.4 (6.0–74.9)

HCoV-associated pneumonia

23.5 (-4.1–43.8)

Hospitalized HCoV-associated LRTI or pneumonia

19.9 (-13.1–43.2)

Non-hospitalized HCoV-associated LRTI or pneumonia

38.7 (2.6–61.4)

Single virus detected

HCoV-associated LRTI or pneumonia

31.5 (5.9–50.1)

HCoV-associated LRTI (non-pneumonia)

55.3 (-12.9–82.3)

HCoV-associated pneumonia

32.7 (4.8–52.5)

Hospitalized HCoV-associated LRTI or pneumonia

32.5 (-1.2–55.0)

Non-hospitalized HCoV-associated LRTI or pneumonia

40.8 (-2.7–65.9)

 Lewnard 2021 [8]

PCV13

Adults ≥ 65y in the US

COVID-19 diagnosis

35 (28–72)^b

COVID-19 hospitalization

32 (17–43)^b

Fatal COVID-19 hospitalization

32 (5–51)^b